1. Fundamental questions of physics and some laws of nature
A. The problems of physics
Report from the Hubble says: matter forms in the supposedly empty space between cosmological bodies at the staggering rate of one star per minute capped by the discovery of a baby galaxy in 2004 (more emerging galaxies have been sighted since than). First cosmic dust forms then it gets entangled into cosmological vortices and collects at their centers to become cosmological bodies like galaxy, planet and moon. There are places in the cosmos called star nurseries that produce stars at quite a rapid rate. While these findings resolve the puzzle of the missing 95% of matter in the Cosmos, that, after all, it is there but for whatever reasons we cannot detect it, physics is faced with the unprecedented challenge of how to study matter whose existence has no direct evidence whatsoever. And yet it exists in view of the first law of thermodynamics that says energy, therefore, also matter, cannot be created or destroyed. Since then that missing matter has been called dark matter because light, our medium for observation, cannot detect it.
At the same time there are long-standing unsolved problems of physics such as the gravitational n-body and the turbulence problems as well as some old fundamental questions that remain unanswered by mathematical physics. Some of them physics has abandoned, e.g., the gravitational n-body problem and the structure of the electron, but is in hot pursuit of others such as the 5,000-year-old quest for the basic constituent of matter and the turbulence problem. The pursuit of the former has absorbed staggering amount of resources during the atom-smashing frenzy of the last half century and for good reason. Unless we know that basic constituent we really do not know what matter is and physicists have correctly assessed that this question is the key to the resolution of those long-standing fundamental questions and unsolved problems. Let us list down the others.
What is gravity? What is a black hole? What is the so-called elementary particle and what is its structure? What is superconductivity? What are cosmic waves and what are their source and medium? What is charge? Explain magnetic levitation (the basis of the development of the magnetic train). What was the Big Bang? How do galaxies and other cosmological bodies form? Why do they spin? What is the destiny of our universe?
The questions spill over to the applications of physics. In biology we have these questions:
What distinguishes living from non-living organism? How does the brain work? What is the brain’s medium of communication? What is cosmic energy? How do mutants spread in the body?
In psychology, there is a need for a physics-based theory of intelligence (physical psychology) to explain: intelligence, learning, recollection, creativity and cognition, i.e., the brain’s ability to know the real world and express that knowledge as physical theory.
Then there are paranormal and astonishing phenomena some of which now have physical explanation. They include: Kerian photography, human aura and levitation, spontaneous human combustion, telekinesis and unusual capability such as that displayed by Devi Shakuntala of India who can do mathematical operation on 13-digit numbers in split second.
Obviously, measurement and computation cannot answer these questions. At best they can describe them. Nor can they solve long-standing problems of physics since some basic concepts like mass and gravity are not known. Newton’s law of gravitation only describes the behavior of two bodies subject to their mutual gravitational attraction.
Their resolution and explanation are found in the coming book, Grand Unified Hybrid Theory (GUHT), co-authored by this host and V. Lakshimikantham.
Quantum physics has a number of differential equations. Their solutions are supposed to reveal the behavior and properties of physical systems. However, they are external to them and do not reveal their internal structure or dynamics and, therefore, the solutions lack the capability to predict the course of further development. Moreover, a lot of differential equations of physics are unsolvable. At any rate, we summarize the inadequacy of computation and measurement.
(1) It has no predictive capability because it only describes behavior and properties mathematically and statistically.
(2) The mathematical model of a physical system belongs to some mathematical system. The physical system belongs to the physical world but the model is man-made and represents thought. Therefore, they are independent, each determined by its own premises.
(3) Therefore, the mathematical model cannot provide the solution of problem belonging to another system independent of it.
(4) A mathematical model is static and unaffected by and not sensitive to emerging physical conditions, e.g., interaction with other physical systems, the latter is dynamic.
(5) Computation on the mathematical model reveals the behavior of the mathematical system the model belongs to and is independent of the physical system it models; in general computation provides information about some mathematical system; any inference about the physical system derived from it amounts to reasoning by analogy.
(6) Global behavior of a physical system and its model is generally independent of local behavior; e.g., a differential equation and its solution have only local validity; global phenomenon, like gas turbulence cannot be derived from local behavior such as properties of individual molecules.
(7) Most differential equations are unsolvable; given a differential equation we can introduce some function either as a factor or term to make it unsolvable.
(8). Complicated configurations of matter are difficult if not impossible to model computationally, e.g., the nucleus of an atom; even a model that takes its constituent parts into account yields only limited information; no amount of computation, for example, can explain why protons coexist in the nucleus despite their tremendous repulsion.
(9) Computation is inadequate for the study of chaos, e.g., limit set of fractal and dark matter (called fundamental chaos) since visible matter comes from it.
A physical problem requires the capability to predict the future course of a given physical system based on boundary conditions to be able to solve it. Even in making a piece of technology some amount of prediction is needed: if the components are chosen and put together right it will do what it is intended to. Short of this many inventors have suffered its consequences, e.g., a brother of Alfred Nobel, inventor of the dynamite, died in an explosion. In the case of the gravitational n-body problem the boundary conditions are partial because the n bodies have cosmological history and the full boundary conditions belong to the past. That is why it is called an inverse problem. Without full understanding of that cosmological history the problem is vague because matter and gravity that determine the motion of the bodies are unknown. That is the reason the problem could not be solved by mathematical modeling.
B. The need for adequate methodology
To be able to know the nature of any physical system, i.e., its internal structure and dynamics, it is necessary to know how nature works and that requires knowing its laws of motion and behavior called natural laws. They are revealed by the behavior of physical systems or natural phenomena. But they have to be articulated to be able to explain them. Such knowledge of nature, articulation of its laws and explanation of natural phenomena cannot be accomplished by computation and measurement. We need qualitative mathematics, their complement, to do the quintuple task of knowing nature, articulating its laws, using them to explain natural phenomena, predicting their future development and solving scientific problems including technological problems. This is what we have called qualitative modeling, the complement of computational modeling. They always go together in solving scientific problems.
One of the earliest known laws of nature is the first law of thermodynamics that says energy cannot be created or destroyed (note that neither computation nor measurement is involved in its statement). To start with we define energy as motion of matter either of which we know nothing about to start with; all we know from this definition is that matter and energy always go together and there is no such thing as pure energy or pure matter. Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object and a unit of mass in the metric system is the gram. By latent energy we mean dark or undetectable energy; kinetic energy is visible or detectable or measurable energy such as charge. There is latent energy in a liter of gasoline. When ignited it converts to kinetic energy.
There is inadequacy in the first law: it does not take latent energy into account. For example, shoot a beam of light into a vacuum and turn it off. What happens to the energy of light? It vanishes without trace because no atoms or molecules absorb and convert it to kinetic energy. Otherwise, it would have meant rise in temperature along the beam. We shall upgrade the first law, call it by another name and consider it the first milestone in the search for the basic constituent of matter.
2. The Search for the basic constituent of matter
Given the patterns and regularity of nature we are now ready to upgrade the first law of thermodynamics into what we consider the most fundamental law of nature so that other natural laws that we need to discover must be consistent with it and if some natural phenomenon appears to contradict it we find some natural law that reconciles them. This will be our strategy.
Energy Conservation. In any physical system and its interactions, the sum of kinetic and latent energy is constant, gain of energy is maximal and loss of energy is minimal.
The first statement says that matter and energy can only be converted from one form to another and in any conversion the total energy remains constant. The other two statements say that nature optimizes.
Our primary agenda now is to discover the basic constituent as the key to our knowledge of nature. Therefore, we discover other natural laws to reach that objective. The next natural law states the various expressions of energy conservation so that we can choose the relevant expression for specific purposes such as describing or explaining the configuration of the basic constituent and any other configuration is energy dissipating.
Energy Conservation Equivalence. Energy conservation has other forms: order, symmetry, economy, least action, optimality, efficiency, stability, self-similarity (fractal), coherence, resonance, quantization, smoothness, uniformity, motion-symmetry balance, non-redundancy, evolution to infinitesimal configuration, helical and related configuration such as circular, spiral and sinusoidal and, in biology, genetic encoding of characteristics, reproduction and order in diversity and complexity of functions.
This law provides information not achievable by computation, e.g., the shape of the electron and configuration of photon and cosmic wave. Non-redundancy means that nature does not create another physical system when there is already one with the same functions. The so-called third quark in the nucleus outside the proton discovered in 2004 does the same function as the negative quark in the proton – joins two positive quarks. The third quark also joins two positive quarks, one from each of two protons. Therefore, both of them must be both negative quark. This law explains a lot of other things such as the spiral paths of free-falling bodies quite prominent in young galaxy.
The steady formation of matter in the Cosmos combined with energy conservation reveals another law of nature.
Existence of Two Fundamental States of Matter. There exist two fundamental states of matter: visible and dark; the former is directly observable, the latter is not.
With the existence of dark matter established, this question is no longer vacuous: what does dark matter consist of? The answer – the superstring – resolves the 5,000-year-old quest for the basic constituent of matter. For the moment it is just a name but as soon as we discover enough natural laws to give it “flesh”, i.e, structure, behavior and properties, we shall do so.
Why is it that we cannot detect the superstring? Our medium of observation is light. To be detected an object in the Cosmos it must emit or reflect light or be silhouetted against a source of light. Obviously, the superstring does not emit light because it is lighter and smaller than a photon of light. When does an object reflect a photon of light? When its momentum is at least equal to the momentum of a photon of light and obviously that of the superstring is much less. Can it be silhouetted against a light source? Obviously, not since we have not detected it. What can be the reason? For an objected to be detected by light it must demolish a wavelength to register in the sensor, the spectroscope. That is called interference or discordant resonance. For it to occur its size must be of the same order of magnitude as visible light and the finest visible light is beyond the blue spectrum and towards but before the ultra-violet which is of order of magnitude 10-14 meters. We proceed from this assumption based on the principle of resonance that says, only object of size at least the same order of magnitude of the wave length of light interferes or has discordant resonance with it. These are the reasons the superstring could not be found in the atom.
We know that the superstring exists but we do not know its structure and properties. We think backwards starting from its impact on visible matter. We already know one impact: formation of matter in the Cosmos. Another impact is the stability of nature that has existed for billions of years. This means that the superstring is indestructible. As a piece of matter, the superstring must have motion. Furthermore, every piece of matter must be reducible to it. These are the parameters within which we endow the superstring with full structure and properties. We need more natural laws to achieve this; we first define some concepts.
Flux is motion of matter with identifiable direction at each point, e.g., water current, wave and cyclone. Turbulence is coherence of fluxes, e.g., typhoon as vortex. In any flux there is always resistance by the medium called viscosity. This is mitigated by local vibration called micro component of turbulence so that the resistance is turned to advantage to facilitate passage. Thus, cosmic waves ride on the synchronized vibration of the superstrings. The latter is part of its latent energy. Riding on vibration is also a form of resonance. Chaos is mixture of order none of which is identifiable. A classic example of chaos is the initial phase of the formation of tropical cyclone when trillions of gas molecules rush towards tropical depression and collide among themselves. The motion of each molecule cannot be identified due to the immensity of their number and yet each molecule is subject to the laws of nature. Moreover, since collision is energy dissipating, energy conservation induces this chaos towards global order, a vortex called tropical cyclone. The next law explains cyclone formation as well as that of the superstring.
Flux-Low-Pressure Complementarity. Low pressure sucks matter around it and the initial chaotic rush of dark matter towards low pressure stabilizes into local or global coherent flux; conversely, coherent flux induces low pressure around it.
The discovery of this law was inspired by a high school experiment in physics many years ago: place two books on the desk with parallel back edges three inches apart; place a thin light soft paper over the gap and blow under. What will happen to the paper? Intuition says it will fly off but in reality it will sag down and get sucked by the flux of air under it (try this experiment).
Now, let us to go back to the superstring and its indestructibility. Destruction occurs only in interaction of objects of comparable order of magnitude of size when there is interference or discordant resonance. What is the possible cause of its destruction? A hammer cannot do it because there is no resonance there, destructive or harmonious. The only possible cause of its destruction is the impact of cosmic wave since it is due to vibration of the dark component of atomic nucleus whose order of magnitude is comparable to that of the superstring. Therefore, there is resonance between their vibrations. The vibrating atomic nuclei generate and propagate basic cosmic waves across dark matter, i.e., the medium for cosmic waves.
Now let us think hard. What configuration should the superstring have to be indestructible to the impact of cosmic wave and at the same time have motion in it like the atom? From energy conservation and energy conservation equivalence it must have the following qualities: smooth, has maximum symmetry, a loop for motion in it to be sustained and helical to optimize space (like the DNA strand). Such an object can be destroyed easily by the energetic cosmic wave. So what is missing? What other universal configuration of matter will make it indestructible? Imagine an egg shell that contains an egg shell that contains an egg shell, etc., ad infinitum, forming a nested fractal sequence of shells. What does it do to the shells? If the outer shell is struck by any force only a finite number of shells will break and the rest remains intact as nested fractal sequence of shells, in other words, it is indestructible. This nested fractal configuration is what the superstring needs to make it indestructible.
Let us now take as a law of nature that the superstring is nested fractal and call it the fractal principle. When hit by cosmic wave a superstring, possibly after shedding off its first few outer layers in the fractal sequence, is imparted with kinetic energy and thrown off into collision with other superstrings (as one possibility since they have the same order of magnitude of size) bouncing into erratic motion like Brownian motion that forms an erratic flux. Only two things can happen here: (a) the kinetic energy imparted by the cosmic wave is exhausted or dissipated and the superstring comes to rest or (b) it comes near its earlier path and gets sucked by it, by flux-low-pressure complementarity, to form a loop (closed path) with itself as a flux along the loop. Energy conservation induces this loop to evolve into an optimal configuration, namely, helical with the original superstring as its flux, called toroidal flux (we shall understand later why this name is used), along its cycles. This is now a new superstring. By the fractal principle its toroidal flux is a superstring whose toroidal flux is a superstring, etc.; then its nested fractal structure becomes clear. The first term of the newly formed superstring has been referred to as the superstring because its toroidal flux was not known then. This new superstring is semi-agitated, i.e., its cycle length (CL) lies between 10−16 and 10−14 meters; a superstring is non-agitated if CL < 10−16 and agitated if CL > 10−14 m. Semi-agitated and non-agitated superstrings are dark and agitated superstring is visible. Left alone, a superstring steadily shrinks, by energy conservation, since the motion of the toroidal flux is more energy dissipating over a longer distance and nature optimizes. Both semi- and non-agitated superstrings have the configuration of a hollow torus, hence, the term toroidal flux. The g-sequence of a decimal models the nested fractal superstring and d* models its tail end, a physical continuum (cannot be split into distinct superstrings). We can now introduce the black hole as massive concentration of non-agitated superstring that accumulates in the eye of cosmological vortex such as star or galaxy because the eye is a region of calm that de-agitates matter at the boundary of its eye. We shall take this up in detail later.
There is another possibility that occurs when a non-agitated superstring is hit by cosmic wave: the kinetic energy of the latter is absorbed by its first term as nested fractal by expanding (i.e., raising the latent energy of the toroidal flux) to a semi-agitated superstring. This is not a new superstring but conversion from non-agitated to semi-agitated.
Note that the toroidal flux has just enough energy to suck itself and form a loop that evolves into a semi-agitated superstring. This is a form of quantization principle. Consequently, just like an inert atom, the dark superstring does not interact with anything else. Therefore, it is absolutely stable and absolute stability of the superstrings provides absolute stability to dark matter. Right here we have an absolute frame of reference for our universe, its dark component).
A. The primum
What happens when a semi-agitated superstring is struck by cosmic wave? (a) It breaks and its toroidal flux remains non-agitated and at rest in dark matter (its motion overcome by dark viscosity) or (b) the impacted segment expands and becomes agitated, i.e., visible; it is called primum, a unit of visible matter. This completes the requirements on the superstring as basic constituent of matter, dark or visible. Among the familiar simple prima are the electron, positron, and the positive and negative quarks. The neutrino, proton and neutron are coupled prima. Since a simple primum forms by the expansion of the helical cycles of a segment of semi-agitated superstring it remains a helix whose lateral section or profile has a sinusoidal envelope (by energy conservation equivalence). In other words, its envelope is obtained by the rotation of a full arc of a sinusoidal curve of even power (that preserves symmetry). The more energized a primum the flatter and discular its cross-section due to centrifugal force of spin of its toroidal flux and the greater the exponent of the generating sinusoidal arc. The plane through its rim is called equatorial plane and the extreme cycle at its rim the equator.
The primum is a different ballgame, so to speak, because unlike the dark superstring it is interactive. Hit by cosmic waves from all directions, its toroidal flux is thrown into erratic motion (Brownian motion) called spike in the neighborhood of its helical path but continues to travel along its helical cycles, by flux-low-pressure comlementarity, at great speed (we shall confirm later that its speed is greater than that of light). Consequently, it pulls the superstrings around the primum into a vortex flux (induced by its toroidal flux) with cylindrical eye along its axis. Again, this flux is motion of matter and is, therefore, energy called charge. This makes the primum a magnet. When its vortex flux is clockwise viewed from the north-pole it has negative charge (positive if counterclockwise, by convention). The electron has negative charge, -1, the unit of charge. Its energy is 1.6 ´ 10-19 coulombs (q). Its mirror image with respect to a plane normal to its equatorial plane beyond its vortex flux is the positron, its anti-matter (explained in GUHT). Its vortex flux is counterclockwise and its charge +1. The positive and negative quarks have charges +2/3 and -1/3, respectively.
B. Primal polarity
The properties of a primum as magnet follow from flux compatibility and primal interaction is governed by it and flux-low-pressure complementarity.
Flux Compatibility. Two prima of opposite toroidal flux spins attract at their equators but repel at their poles; otherwise, they repel at their equators but attract at their poles. Two prima of same toroidal flux spin connect equatorially only through a primum of opposite toroidal flux spin between them called connector.
Note that the negative quark is a connector between positive quarks (as we shall see later the valence electron is connector between two atoms of a molecule, one valence electron from each). Moreover, every simple primum has charge. Therefore, a primum that is neutral is necessarily coupled, e.g., neutron and neutrino, where the charge of a component primum is neutralized by the charge of another. A primum has spin as unit of matter different from its toroidal flux spin. For example, the electron has spin ½, meaning it rotates about its axis in the direction of its toroidal flux which is clockwise.
To be able to discuss primal polarity we first offer the following information:
(1) Earth’s gravity (as well as gravity of any cosmological vortex) is part of the dynamics of its vortex flux of superstrings called gravitational flux. Its direction is from West to East; the Earth being collected mass around its eye is pulled by it into a spin of 24-hour cycle.
(2) There is a lag in the Earth’s gravitational flux from the equator to either Pole, fastest at the Equator and zero flux at either Pole.
Since non-agitated and semi-agitated superstrings have infinitesimal or no induced flux around their cycles, they do not interact with other superstrings and prima and are, therefore, randomly oriented. When a semi-agitated superstring is agitated and pops out of dark matter as free primum and its equatorial plane is oblique to the direction of the gravitational flux, it rotates counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere (clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere) in view of (2) and aligns its equatorial plane in the direction of the gravitational flux. This is the optimal energy-conserving alignment of a free primum. By flux compatibility, a positive primum is pushed up so that there is abundance of free protons and positrons in the upper atmosphere (confirmed by shower of fragments of protons smashed by energetic cosmic waves that fall on Earth). Free neutral prima are oriented randomly.
Free positive ions are counterclockwise eddies in the Earth’s gravitational flux and are also pushed upwards, by flux compatibility. However, being heavy, they remain in the clouds in the lower atmosphere.
The electron as clockwise eddy in the Earth’s gravitational flux is pushed downwards, by flux compatibility. Thus, there is abundance of free electrons on the ground. Other free negative prima including the negative quarks should be abundant on the ground but we do not know where they are; this needs investigation.
When the voltage between the positive ions in the lower atmosphere and the electrons on the ground reaches critical level they rush towards each other, collide and explode as lightning (a bolt of lightning has the energy of one megaton of TNT).
A moving charge is electric current and the electron is known to be carrier of electric current. It is not clear if it is the only carrier. At any rate, this separation between positive and negative prima contributes to the stability of cosmological vortices like Earth.
Outside the Earth’s gravitational flux primal orientation is determined by the dominant gravitational flux there; between planetary gravitational fluxes it is the Sun’s gravitational flux that prevails. Outside the solar system it is Milky Way’s, etc.
It is clear that the essential prima, namely, the quarks and electrons, emerge steadily, especially, in living things. Since they are quickly separated by the Earth’s gravitational flux their clustering into free atoms and molecules must occur just as quickly upon popping out of dark matter. Prima formed in living things, however, remain and they form their atoms, tissues and chemicals.
C. Primum, photon and wave-particle duality
Basic cosmic wave travels at the speed of light. When it scoops up a primum the latter flattens in the direction of flight due to dark viscosity and becomes rapid oscillation. When it breaks away from its loop it becomes a photon and remains stable when its forward flux speed is equal to the speed of its carrier wave, i.e., the speed of light, c = 105 km/sec in vacuum. Otherwise, it disintegrates, the toroidal flux remaining at rest in dark matter. This occurs, for instance, when the carrier wave passes through opaque barrier that blocks the photon. Thus, photon at rest disintegrates and its toroidal flux dissipates and remains dark matter. Its so-called rest mass is calculated from its kinetic energy. The fact that the forward flux speed of a photon equals the speed of light implies that the speed of the toroidal flux along the fine oscillating arc and also along the helical cycles of the primum it comes from is greater than the speed of light (toroidal flux speed of a primum or photon is known to be 0.7×1020 km/sec; this is another constant of nature).
The wave-particle duality in the behavior of a photon comes from the fact that it is, indeed, a particle, a piece of matter in the form of rapid oscillation of its toroidal flux embedded between arcs of adjacent parallel basic cosmic waves of opposite crests as its envelope. Since this carrier envelope is sinusoidal, i.e., a wave, it exhibits wave characteristic. Even simple primum that rides on basic cosmic wave flattens into rapid oscillation with the loop remaining intact and exhibits wave-particle characteristics. With its loop intact it is stable unless destroyed by collision or energetic cosmic wave.
It is this wave characteristic of the photon that deflects it inward when it passes the gravitational flux of a cosmological body like the Sun, as predicted by Einstein, and allows us to ,see stars at the back of the Sun during solar eclipse. If it were an asteroid instead of a photon it would have been deflected away, fortunately, by flux compatibility (thus, the Earth’s gravitational flux has shielding effect against asteroids).
We have earlier modeled the photon embedded between its pair of carrier basic cosmic waves by rapid oscillation and the primum by rapid spiral. Energy conservation and flux compatibility pull the primal cycles together to form a wild oscillation that requires the generalized integral to make calculation of mass (GUHT).
3. Quantum Gravity
From this point on we shall not provide details as they are available in GUHT and the references.
A. What is quantum gravity?
It is the local dynamics of vortex flux of superstrings induced by primal toroidal spin. It governs primal, atomic and molecular interactions.
B. Primal coupling and interaction
The familiar simple prima are the electron, charge –1 (1.6 ´ 10-19 coulombs (q)), positron, charge +1, positive quark, charge +2/3, and negative quark, charge –1/3.
The proton consists of two positive quarks joined equatorially by a negative quark, their axis coplanar (by energy conservation). Its charge: 2/3 – 1/3 + 2/3 = 1, i.e., there is net counterclockwise vortex flux around with the vortex flux of the negative quark an eddy in it.
The neutrino being neutral is coupled pair of prima of opposite but equal charge joined at their equators so that if the charge of one is q that of the other is -q and q + (-q) = 0, i.e., neutral.
The rest masses of the neutron, proton and electron are known:
Neutron: 1.674 ´ 10-27 kg
Proton: 1.672 ´ 10-27 kg
Electron: 9.6107 ´ 10-31 kg. (1)
Converting to atomic mass unit (amu) we obtain their masses as follows:
Neutron: 1.0087 amu
Proton: 1.0073 amu
Electron: 5.4860 ´ 10−4 amu = 0.00010025 amu. (2)
Taking the difference between the mass of the neutron and the combined mass of the proton and electron we find the mass of the neutrino:
η = 8.5 ´ 10−8 amu or 0.153 times electron mass or roughly 1/6. . (3)
C. Genesis of the atom and formation of heavy isotope
The first thing that forms in an atom is the nucleus consisting of protons alone. Then their toroidal fluxes induce a vortex flux of counterclockwise toroidal spin with the protons at its eye. By flux-low-pressure complementarity, the eye sucks neutral elements like neutrons to form heavy isotope (charged prima are repelled by the quarks and electrons). Non-agitated superstrings being neutral steadily accumulate in the eye to form a mini black hold. In nuclear fission they are agitated and released as photons and prima.
4. Macro gravity
Macro gravity is the global dynamics of vortex fluxes of superstrings around a cosmological body, star, metropolis of a galaxy.
A. Usual formation of cosmological vortices
The steady shrinking of the superstrings, by energy conservation, combined with the law of uneven development creates nested fractal sequences of low pressure regions or cosmic depression, i.e., regions of depression in a depression, containing regions of depression that contain regions of depression, etc. By flux-low-pressure complementarity they evolve into nested fractal sequences of cosmological vortices. Again, by the law of uneven development, the most probable formation is one core vortex containing nested fractal sequences of cosmological vortices starting with clusters of galaxies through galaxies containing nested fractal sequences of stars, planets, moons and cosmic dust. We refer to the vortices around the eye of the core vortex (core eye) minor vortices the latter also nested fractal sequences of vortices.
Initially, the nested fractal sequences of regions of depression are dark but with sprinkling of cosmic dust which means cosmic waves come from outside, in effect, pointing to the existence of visible universes elsewhere since cosmic waves are generated by nuclear vibration and they convert dark matter to prima and atoms that collect around micro vortices as cosmic dust. Then the nested fractal sequences of depression evolve into nested fractal sequences of cosmological vortices with the cosmic dust entangled in them. By energy conservation there is an optimal spread of nested fractal cluster of regions of depression that forms nested fractal sequences of cosmological vortices. Since dark matter has no interaction with dark or visible matter such forces as centrifugal force are not manifested in it. Therefore, the underlying dark matter that engulfs a cosmological vortex is spherical; we call it dark halo. However, centrifugal force the visible halo concentrates it along the equatorial plane in a discular halo that is thin and at the rim and thick at the core where the collected mass is located. By resonance with the dark component of the visible halo and flux-low-pressure complementarity the dark halo concentrates along the gravitational flux at the equatorial plane of the vortex. The visible halo of a universe is similar to what we see in a galaxy. In the solar system it contains the planetary orbits. The Earth’s dark halo extends far beyond the Moon that rides on it.
The eye of a cosmological vortex is a region of low pressure and calm that sucks matter and spins it around its boundary. This is the essential structure of a vortex, dark and visible or ordinary, except that in the last category the eye is only a transit station for sucked matter. It is the graveyard of the first two. Examples of ordinary vortices are cyclone, tornado and the water vortex that forms when a swimming pool is being emptied of its water. In the case of a cosmological vortex low pressure and calm in the eye de-agitates visible matter at its boundary called event horizon and turns it into massive concentration of non-agitated superstrings at the center called black hole. At the same time, the spin of the eye is agitational on the spinning collected mass on the event horizon and converts the latter into prima and light gases initially. In rare cases where two cosmological vortices of comparable masses and the same spin form, the collected masses around their eyes evolve into binary stars along their common equatorial plane so that they repel each other, by flux compatibility, and at the same time sucks and spins each other around the eye to form a figure eight common orbit. Binary stars are observed in the sky. Those with opposite spins merge and comparable masses, clash and explode as supernova if they get close together, a rare occurrence since stars are thinly dispersed even at nucleus of galaxy).
We summarize our discussion by the next natural law.
Formation of a Macro Vortex. The steady shrinking of superstrings, by energy conservation combined with the law of uneven development, induces formation of nested fractal sequences of depression that evolve into nested fractal sets of cosmological vortices.
Note that a galaxy forms a unit as core vortex of nested fractal sequences of vortices, i.e., as their common first term every term of which is similar to it in structure. In a typical galaxy the core vortex contains nested fractal minor vortices consisting of stars and each of the latter contains nested fractal sequences of vortices consisting of planets, etc., all the way to the moons and cosmic dust. In the other direction of clustering Andromeda and the Milky Way belong to the larger galactic cluster Virgo. The two directions form the fractal-reverse-fractal vortex interaction of our universe.
A galaxy is a universe by itself; in fact, in terms of structure, the Milky Way is a universe by itself. Of course, it now belongs to our universe. Huge universes like ours, however, are formed in a special way.
B. The cosmology of our universe
Our setting is the timeless boundless Universe of dark and visible matter. Our universe is quite special because it was started by a Big Bang, a very rare phenomenon was triggered by suitable sequences of cosmic wave hits on that primordial black hole, the destiny of the core of a previous universe. Its inhabitants, therefore, starting with the big ones – the galactic clusters and galaxies – were formed also in a very special way with at least one possible exception, our home – the Milky Way.
In traditional cosmology the Big Bang is assumed to have occurred spontaneously as if our universe started with violation of energy conservation. In fact, it was a natural phenomenon subject to the laws of nature. We state the particular natural law involved.
The Big Bang. A black hole exploded 12 billion years ago (t = 0), formed our Cosmic Sphere and agitated dark matter between its inner and outer boundaries and in its interior and near exterior.
The primordial black hole was immersed in and at resonance with dark matter having tremendous latent energy; suitable agitation by sequence of cosmic waves triggered chain reaction that converted it into a great burst of kinetic energy called the Big Bang. Anything that explodes destroys whatever order there is in it so that it is followed by initial chaos that, in view of energy conservation, evolves into a new order. On this basis we now account for the formation of our universe. The Big Bandgcreated two physical systems: a super…super depression in dark matter and an expanding spherical wave front at accelerated rate called Cosmic Sphere. During this period, 0 < t < 1.5, the Cosmic Sphere was compressed layer of dark matter trapped and pressed between the force of explosion and the suction by its interior (by flux-low-pressure complementarity) and pounded and agitated by the less energetic shock waves (concentrated cosmic wave with enhanced latent energy) bouncing between its inner and outer boundaries. This agitation endowed the Cosmic Sphere and the superstrings trapped in it with enormous latent energy. Compression of trapped dark matter prevented conversion to prima, only semi-agitated superstrings. The more energetic shock waves pierced the Cosmic Sphere and converted dark to visible matter in its exterior. The expanding Cosmic Sphere weakened and, combined with outward pressure from the compressed and semi-agitated superstrings in it, burst at t = 1.5 billion years called Cosmic Burst referred to as the second big bang [78]. It was much more powerful than the Big Bang because of the accumulated infusion of latent energy stemming from agitation of trapped dark matter between its inner and outer layers.
The Cosmic Burst released the semi-agitated superstrings into the fractal sequences of regions of low pressure in its vicinity as simple prima at first due to high temperature and kinetic energy and motion. They got entangled into the evolving fractal sequences of cosmological vortices in the neighborhood of the once Cosmic Sphere and formed the bright and radioactive quasars that peaked at t = 2.5 billion years. Dark viscosity slowed down their motion, reduced kinetic energy and temperature and allowed formation of light clusters such as proton, neutron and neutrino and light elements like hydrogen, helium and boron and, combined with further decline of temperature, gave way to the formation of galaxies.
The Cosmic Burst added to the breadth and depth of this super…super depression and at the same time let in matter into it that formed the transitory phase of chaos and by energy conservation evolved into a vortex that started the evolution of our universe into a super…super galaxy. It started as local vortex but as matter around it plunged into the core it imparted momentum on and raised the power of its spin. Due to dark viscosity, the increasing spin expanded influence and pulled matter in its vicinity including the minor vortices into orbits around it while being pulled by the eye’s suction. The effect is formation of rotating spiral trajectories of matter falling into the spinning boundary (event horizon) of the eye. As our universe increased its spin it imparted greater centrifugal force on the galaxies but balanced by the suction by the eye that induced elliptical orbits around it (elliptical due to radial effect of the laws of uneven development and universality of oscillation the latter as component of energy conservation equivalence). As its power rose further, centrifugal force surpassed gravitational suction. This explains the present accelerated radial expansion of our universe described by Hubble’s law. We do not know if this acceleration is rising or slowing down.
Dark matter is unaffected by gravity and remains spherical that engulfs the visible halo that we see in a galaxy which is discular in shape, thin at the rim and thick at the core where visible matter collects and spins at the boundary of the eye. However, due to resonance with the dark component of visible matter and the effect of flux-low-pressure complementarity and centrifugal force dark halo concentrates on the visible halo that rides on the gravitational flux along the equatorial plane where the spherical spirals of falling visible matter are located.
The energy imparted by the Big Bang plus the accumulated energy of the Cosmic Sphere due to 1.5 billion years of agitation by shock waves from the Big Bang that bounced between its outer and inner layers converting non-agitated superstrings to semi-agitated superstrings and enhancing their latent energy made our universe a super…super galaxy 1010 light years across. The energy released at Cosmic Burst enhanced the super…super depression created by the Big Bang and enhanced as well the power of the super…super galaxy it evolved into.
There is evidence of the existence of another universe elsewhere, perhaps, with even more powerfully accelerated expansion beyond a critical level than our universe’s as shown by galaxy clusters catapulted by it that have traversed our universe. Such a universe could not have been formed the usual way.
One question remains: can a universe as big as ours form the usual way? Quite unlikely since as we noted there is an optimum spread for fractal sequences of depression to evolve into a cosmological vortex.
There is another dynamics: as visible matter falls into the core, resonance with its dark component pulls dark matter with it and thins out the gravitational flux reducing dark viscosity and hence suction by the eye on the minor vortices. Suction reaches a peak and declines resulting in an isolated vortex once again (an example of this state is the Sagittarius debris of stars as remnant of its past as a galaxy.. Formation of galaxies continues and a nascent one still developing was discovered in 2004. Recently, there have been discovered stars as massive as 200 million times the mass of our Sun. They are collected masses at the eyes of some past galaxies lighter than the Milky Way which is 300 billion times as massive as our Sun.
What is the destiny of our universe? being a galaxy, albeit a super…super galaxy, it has the same destiny as any galaxy, a cluster of black holes as we shall see below.
C. Genesis, evolution and destiny of galaxy
We trace the development, evolution and dynamics of formation of a galaxy based on current knowledge. We begin with its genesis and evolution, establish it on some laws of nature and explain how the process unfolds.
There are two types of galaxies in our universe: those that evolved from the quasars that formed immediately after the Cosmic Burst and those that formed independently of the Big Bang but drawn into it as our universe expanded. We deal with the latter type. Galaxies of this type evolved naturally from the steady shrinking of the superstrings described earlier. The Milky Way appears to belong to this type. It is an old galaxy, the oldest in its neighborhood that includes the much younger Andromeda. Its spiral covering along which visible matter falls to its core and spins around the eye consists of four faint arms issuing from the galactic rim towards the eye, winds around it and merges into the spinning matter at its boundary. Faintness indicates thinned out gravitational flux and visible matter that have collected around the eye, a sign of old age. In contrast, its neighbor Andromeda has bright abundant spirals indicating its youth. The Milky Way got drawn into our universe, much later as shown by the fact that we can still see the latter when it was only 3% of present age. In other words, the Milky Way was way far from the Big Bang.
The predecessor of any galaxy is nested fractal pockets of low pressure in dark matter belonging to either type. It evolves into fractal sequences of vortices, by the law of uneven development and the operation of the fractal, energy conservation and flux-low-pressure complementarity laws, among others. This is typical formation. Most galaxies in the Cosmos have single core vortex containing minor vortices around its core eye that eventually line up along spiral flux streamlines and fall into the spinning collected mass around the core eye. They are visible among young galaxies (e.g., spiral nebulae). Older galaxy like the Milky Way has faint spirals, the minor vortices along them having been sucked and absorbed by the core eye.
A galaxy has life cycle: initial formation of its core and minor vortices, falling of the latter into and around the core eye that raises the power of spin, expansion of its influence outward due to dark viscosity that pulls and catapults outlying vortices into orbit as they are being sucked by the eye towards it the resultant pulling them towards the eye along spiral paths. The impact of spin reaches a maximum as gravitational flux thins out. Then galactic power declines and reduces itself to disarray (e.g., Sagittarius’ debris). At the height of power of a galaxy its peripheral stars may be catapulted out of its influence. This may explain the presence of wayward stars that do not seem to belong to any galaxy but travel along straight lines [105]. The migrating galactic clusters trekking through our universe noted above could have been catapulted by some super…super galaxy elsewhere. We do not know if our universe had in the past also catapulted its galaxies but there is evidence that some of its galaxies catapulted some stars.
Taking the Sun as collected mass at its event horizon as minor vortex of the Milky its concentrated gravitational flux that contains its visible halo is discular and the planets except Mercury have their orbits in its thinner portion towards the rim along the solar equatorial plane. Mercury is on the thick portion of the solar discular gravitational flux where the Sun is located as collected mass, which explains its perihelion shift. Saturn, Jupiter and Uranus are collected masses at the cores of solar minor vortices. Their gravitational fluxes are also discular and thin towards their rims. Their thin rings serve as tracer of their dark thin concentration of discular gravitational flux. They are debris from collision catapulted outward by their powerful centrifugal forces. Their moons are accumulated masses at the cores of their minor vortices.
In the evolution of a galaxy the minor vortices that remain in elliptical orbit around the core are few exceptions. Most minor vortices are sucked by the eye. Only the few that gets into elliptical orbits away from the accumulated mass around the core eye escape being devoured. They are caught at balance between the gravitational flux pressure and centrifugal force; orbital ellipticity is due to radial fluctuation of this balance, a consequence of the law of uneven development and oscillation universality. Still fewer are pieces of debris from collected mass of minor vortex that just missed collision with the vortex core and catapulted back into elongated elliptical orbits called comets.
Every vortex has an eye due to energy conservation; there would be much friction, collision and dissipation of energy without it. A vortex in the Cosmos is a physical process involving flux of superstrings. A superstring has mass, repository of its latent energy that is convertible to kinetic energy by suitable agitation. The spin of a vortex is most powerful around the eye; not only does it agitate and convert the superstrings to prima it also pulls visible matter into rotation around the eye due to dark viscosity and resonance with the latter’s dark component and imparts centrifugal force on it. The more vigorous the spin of a galaxy, the bigger its eye due to centrifugal force that pushes its boundary outward, therefore, the stronger its suction. This is also true of typhoons and tornadoes. Centrifugal force is the projection of energy conservation expressed as momentum along the tangent to direction of spin. Thus, any vortex in the Cosmos whose visible component traces its spiral streamlines forms an eye, i.e., a rarefied region of calm and de-agitation. Therefore, by flux-low-pressure complementarity, it sucks and accumulates superstrings around it. Thus, two opposite forces are at work on an element of mass around the eye from the core to the rim of the vortex: suction by the eye and the centrifugal force on it directed outward. Calculation of inward flux pressure is given by Newton’s gravitation law. Around the eye is a balance of vigorous spin, hence, strong centrifugal force against strong inward flux pressure so that the flux streamlines form elliptical orbits due to radial oscillation. As spin increases, this balance extends outward and the vortex expands. However, there is a countervailing dynamics: as gravitational flux thins out, viscosity declines and the impact of the core spin declines as well. The balance of the limits of these opposite dynamics marks the maximum power of a vortex. Then it declines, leaving the minor vortices free.
We can see here the genesis not only of the galaxy but also all its component minor vortices including stellar and planetary systems. A stellar system apart from the solar system has been discovered with a large star at its core and smaller stars orbiting around it. Our solar system is not quite as massive as this one because its minor vortices collect only planets around their eyes. At any rate, the solar system consists of nested fractal sequences of cosmological vortices with the Sun as common first term followed by the planets as minor vortices and, further on into the fractal sequence, the moons and cosmic dust. At the opposite tendency of fractal clustering is the formation of super galactic clusters behaving like ordinary galaxies except in size. They have been verified recently with the Hubble.
Since the eye is region of calm and de-agitation, the superstrings at its boundary are de-agitated, evolve toward infinitesimal tori and cluster into huge concentration of mass inside the eye called black hole. Thus, every vortex is incubator of black hole; it is also its own graveyard both of which have been verified in recent years among galaxies including the Milky Way. By energy conservation this is the scenario that happens in every galaxy:
As falling visible matter declines spin momentum declines as well and, by energy conservation, the prima lose power and energy and, hence, charge. In the case of a star it becomes a neutron star. Since energy is no longer infused into the primal toroidal fluxes the centrifugal force on the primal helical cycles and the prima that comprise the accumulated masses around the eye collapse to semi-agitated superstrings that evolve to non-agitated superstrings that join the black hole in the eye. Then the black hole becomes naked. Then that cosmological vortex has reached its own graveyard, a black hole back in dark matter. It is clear that black hole, being dark, does not suck. It is the eye of the vortex that nurtures it that does. When it becomes naked there is no longer suction but absence of visible matter that was sucked previously by the vortex that nurtured it. There are many such “voids” in the sky catalogued by astronomers.
It is clear that the destiny of a galaxy (or any cosmological vortex), as its power wanes, is a set of black holes, the most massive one in its core eye and the minor ones in the eyes of minor vortices. It is now well verified that there is a black hole at the eye of every galaxy. Moreover, the accumulated mass around the event horizon of a galaxy forms a giant star as transition phase towards black hole. This was verified in 1997 with the discovery of a giant star, observed through the Hubble, 10 million times the mass of our Sun; more massive ones as much as 200 million times the Sun’s mass have been discovered since then.
This evolutionary formation of a galaxy applies formation of a universe the usual way.
D. Vortex interaction and the trek back home to dark matter
The flux compatibility and flux-low-pressure complementarity laws have direct bearing on vortex interaction. However, the energy conservation and energy conservation equivalence laws are the most fundamental ones in any interaction of matter. Other natural laws are their consequences but are highlighted also because of the insights they provide in understanding natural phenomena. To this category belong the oscillation universality, fractal, uneven development and resonance laws.
Spin determines interaction between cosmological vortices which is mediated by their gravitational flux by virtue of flux compatibility: two vortices of opposite spins are attractive through the common coherent induced flux at their rims; they are repulsive otherwise. If they the same spin and their masses have the same order of magnitude, they evolve into binary vortices each revolving around the other and mutually riding on each other’s spiral flux; centrifugal force prevents them from falling into each other. If they have the same spin, regardless of their relative masses, they have mutual repulsion unless one is a giant compared to the other in which case the more massive one may gobble up the less massive. However, if one is large compared to the other and has opposite spin, the latter rides as minor vortex or an eddy on the gravitational flux towards and merges smoothly with the core of the former unless the centrifugal force on the smaller vortex balances the main flux pressure in which case it takes elliptical orbit around the core eye. Otherwise, if suitably light, it gets catapulted off the vortex’s influence. Elliptical orbit, being due to radial oscillation, is the most probable orbital configuration since perfect balance, which yields circular orbit, is unstable in view of the law of uneven development. A minor vortex along the core spiral streamline with spin opposite that of the core vortex either forms elliptical orbit around it as an eddy or gets sucked into and is crushed by the core. As an eddy a vortex has relative autonomy. Two contiguous vortices of comparable masses with the same spin do not crash into each other due to mutual repulsion of opposite fluxes, by flux compatibility.
As in a game of chance, an even game is unlikely over a period of time. While a pair of vortices may have initially the same mass and vortex power, once one vortex gains advantage, by virtue of the law of uneven development, it builds up over time until it is more massive than the other. Then one becomes a minor vortex of the other. Thus, the most likely configuration of fractal sets of vortices is one with single large core vortex and many minor vortices of diverse masses along its flux spirals and those of minor vortices.
While calm and de-agitation in the vortex eye nurtures a black hole in its eye what happens to the accumulated matter around the event horizon? In a galaxy it evolves into huge star as transitional phase towards a black hole. The minor vortices evolve into stars or planets or moons. When the accumulated mass at core eye is greater than two-thirds the mass of our Sun, vortex spin is so powerful that it remains gaseous, as any star is; otherwise, it cools down and congeals into a solid planet (e.g., Earth) or planetoid. The more massive a planet (i.e., having powerful core spin that generates great kinetic energy and high temperature) the more gaseous it is (e.g., Jupiter, Uranus, Saturn, Neptune). Massive cosmological vortices are gaseous but have solid and compact collected masses, e.g., the Sun’s interior has specific gravity 150 due to compression by gravity. We may assume that this is the same specific gravity at the Earth’s core. This is verified during an earthquake by seismic waves that travel faster through denser material.
An old star has weakened kinetic energy and is at the transitional phase towards its destiny, a black hole. Its gravitational flux has declined, spin around the eye has ground to a halt and matter there is well on its way to joining the black hole in the eye. This is the condition of a neutron star, its vortex fluxes of prima, atoms and molecules have considerably weakened, its kinetic energy so weakened that it does not radiate much energy like an ordinary star. Eventually it will lose kinetic energy altogether, collapse into semi- and non-agitated superstrings and join the black hole in its eye and the latter will become naked and nothing is left but a void.
Among the intriguing questions raised by this theory is the possibility of tampering natural object to break global flux coherence and quash its capability to exert gravitational pull on other objects. (Local flux coherence cannot be eliminated because the atoms are local turbulence as vortices). Moreover, by flux-low-pressure complementarity, such tampering cannot shield objects from the gravitational pull of another. However, like the stealth bomber that breaks coherence of reflected radar beams to evade detection, a sufficiently tampered body, e.g., debris like asteroids, may lose global coherent fluxes that, while acted upon by gravity, may no longer exert gravitational pull or push on other bodies. They are bodies that have lost cosmological history. To verify, we utilize some natural laboratory: the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter and around the corridor between Pluto and Neptune [90]. Saturn, Jupiter and Neptune are ideal laboratories for this purpose. The irregular shape of the asteroids and the objects that form the planetary rings reveals lack of cosmological history, meaning, lack of gravitational vortex flux; they are debris rather than matter formed at vortex cores. They do not form gravitational clusters either, that is, they do not exert gravitational pull among themselves and yet they have masses. This is the first major verification of this prediction. They are also counterexamples to Newton’s law of gravitation.
Remember Galileo’s amazement about his own discovery that the rate of acceleration of a free-falling body above Earth is constant regardless of mass [16]? A related question is why an object released from a point above the ground does not follow the flux spirals but falls directly towards the Earth’s center. The first question can be explained by a simple experiment. In a water vortex, say, a sink full of water with objects of different weights floating on it, release the water through an orifice at the bottom and center of the sink. A vortex will form and the floats will be accelerated at the same rate along spirals towards the center-bottom. In Galileo’s experiments the bodies were floating along the Earth’s vortex flux spirals through their dark component. The observer on Earth cannot see the spiral even if there were tracer because he is with the Earth’s spin; however, viewed from the North Pole of the Earth’s vortex the falling object will follow a spiral path pulled by the Earth’s counterclockwise spin just like the floats on the sink. The same dynamics applies to the “cannibalistic” activity of Milky Way on smaller galaxy with opposite spin that enters its gravitational influence. The Milky Way can cannibalize only a smaller galaxy of opposite spin. If they are of the same order of magnitude of mass they mutually explode as supernova. A lighter galaxy of same spin is repelled and cannot be cannibalized.
Recent study reveals that cosmic dust particles are oblong, confirming they have cosmological history, i.e., like a planet, a piece of cosmic dust is accumulated mass around the eye of some micro vortex. While its axis of rotation wobbles, like the summer-winter solstice; the principal determinant of its motion is galactic gravitation if outside stellar gravitational fluxes. Like the Earth it has a mantle and crust. It is estimated that interstellar dust constitutes one thousandth of the Milky Way’s mass and hundreds of times more than the mass of the galaxy’s planets. Cosmic dust continues to form and congeal into stars. While the first term of our universe as nested fractal sequences is a super…super galaxy, the last terms of its cosmological vortices are the cosmic dust. We append to it the molecules, atoms and superstrings to have the full stretch of our fractal universe all the way from the super…super galaxy through dark matter.
The fractal-reverse-fractal algorithm locates any vortex in our fractal universe starting from any cosmological body including cosmic dust particle. Starting from any cosmological vortex one can trace a fractal sequence up into the macro scale (reverse-fractal) and end up in the super…super galaxy, our universe; or go down the sequence at the micro scale and end up at cosmic dust. Conventional science takes the view that these dust clouds formed during the last 1.5 billion years. GUT provides physical explanation of their existence and origin. However, formation of cosmic dust may occur anytime due to suitable agitation in the same way that cosmic ripples and γ-ray bursts occur. They are part of the formation of visible matter of cosmological vortices generated by energetic seismic waves that give birth to stars and galaxies originating at galactic cores.
This dynamics of a galaxy including its genesis, evolution and the trek back home to dark matter applies to all galaxies. Except for the fact that our universe has special birth all this dynamics applies as well to it.
5. Clarification of issues
A. Carbon, oil and biological species
There are four kinds of carbon: diamond, the hardest known element (tempered by heat and extreme pressure deep underground), coal (solid, combustible and found on or near ground surface), oil (liquid, volatile, trapped in cavities underground) and gas molecule carbon dioxide.
There is the mistaken belief that carbon comes from decayed organisms of the past. This is against the laws of nature. During the ascendancy phase of a cosmological body, Earth in this case, the direction of development of physical systems including biological systems is from simple to complex. The Earth is on its ascendancy phase confirmed by the receding Moon, i.e., its power as a vortex is still rising. In fact, the pull of gravity on the Earth’s surface 65 million years ago was 67% of the present. Thirty years ago it was predicted that oil in the Middle East would be exhausted in 12 years and environmentalists were excited about it. There is no indication, however, that it is going to happen and oil in the Middle East continues to fuel wars.
Carbon forms everywhere, in the atmosphere and, most of all, in the cells of living organisms. They are converted from dark matter by the genes. That is how plants and animals grow. There is a law of nature that says, given suitable boundary conditions all possible physical configurations favored by them arise stochastically but only the stable ones survive. It is also known that some crystals and pearls grow once they gain some foothold. In these cases it looks like the presence of these elements constitutes a favorable boundary condition for their expansion. For biological organism it is generally believed that water is a precondition for emergence. Recently, however, organisms that thrive by breathing metal (obviously, pulverized and dry), e.g., manganese, were discovered in the mines of South Africa some two miles underground.
Just like biological species that can arise anywhere when suitable conditions are attained (after all, any physical system is ultimately made up of superstrings which are everywhere) and their emergence favors growth and further development so does carbon. Although carbon continues to form in the atmosphere, there is no favorable condition for expansion and further development. The same question applies to human life: why should human life emerge only in Africa? Even in Africa the existence of two independent species of homo sapient in Kenya has been established recently and yet scientists are looking for the origin of life in space and some speculate that the seeds of life were brought here by comets or asteroids. The Raelians (cult based in South Korea) even assert that human life was engineered by aliens. To the question of whether life exists elsewhere in the Cosmos beyond the solar system or even beyond the Milky Way, the answer, from GUT’s perspective, must be: very likely; this applies to the question of existence of intelligent beings. After all the basic constituent of matter is everywhere.
Chances are, just like biological species which are mainly carbon-based, carbon and its various forms, e.g., coal, oil and diamond, formed stochastically and are distributed unevenly. Once they emerge in a particular region they grow just like crystals and pearls which are now culture commercially. Scientists may study the favorable conditions for the huge accumulation of carbon in certain regions on Earth.
B. Metal fatigue
This phenomenon is not presently understood. Bridges suddenly collapse, a plane’s pylon that connects the engine to the wing falls and metallic casing of a train’s wheel breaks off, gets stuck dangling under the train and causes terrible derailment accident at rail junction. The last tragedy happened in Germany three years ago. Investigator attributed the accident to metal fatigue but they did not know the cause of this phenomenon. An earlier tragedy happened to an American Airlines plane just after take off from O’Hare International Airport in Chicago in the 70s when an engine fell because its pylon broke.
Metals are not perfectly elastic; therefore, when subjected to repetitive distortion like vibration, the net loss of valence elections accumulates, reaches a critical point and the metal snaps. This explains the cause of the above accidents involving repetitive motion, namely vibration. One can experiment on it using metallic paper clip by bending it back and forth; it will eventually snap and break. This infinitesimal but progressive deterioration of vibrating metal is not detectable. Therefore, test of material should be made at appropriate conditions for its use to determine when metal fatigue sets in to avoid accident.
E. Thermonuclear reaction
There current understanding of this phenomenon is erroneous. It is the belief that when hydrogen atoms are suitably compressed their nuclei merge, shed their energy in the form of heat and form heavier nuclei like helium. In the hydrogen bomb compression is supposed to be effected by the explosion of the trigger atom bomb that presses the hydrogen atoms against the bomb shell and among themselves. There is not physical basis for this.the reason fusion research or plasma physics has had no breakthrough in over half a century.
The energy of the hydrogen bomb comes from the agitation of the accumulated superstrings in the nucleus by the explosion of the trigger atom bomb.
F. The Big Bang: an event not a physical theory
The Big Bang was an event that occurred some 12 billion years ago. It was en explosion of a black hole, the destiny of the core vortex of a previous universe. what ever order was in it was destroyed by its explosion and the great release of energy started a new order that evolved into our universe. The Big Bang was by no means a physical theory for the latter is well defined only by the laws of nature.
G. Supernova
The current understanding of supernova as explosion of star, that it is part of the evolution of a star, is incorrect since cosmological vortices are stable. Moreover, a supernova is a rare phenomenon and does not quite match the fact that there are trillions upon trillions of stars in the Cosmos. Left alone, a star evolves towards higher order, a black hole in its eye. Therefore, the only plausible explanation is collision of two stars of opposite spins in their common equatorial plane. If they have the same spin they avoid each other, by flux compatibility. With opposite spins they attract each other and, by their momentum, their fluxes between their eyes merge smoothly at first until the rim of one goes past the eye of the other and their fluxes, being opposite, collide resulting in double explosion. Then the flux barrier between their eyes breaks and creates huge depression that violently sucks matter around causing more powerful third explosion. This phenomenon is analogous to its quantum dual: primum-anti-primum mutual destruction. (Photographs of supernova show the three rings of visible matter on expanding shock waves corresponding to the three explosions [17]). Supernova is quite rare since stars are sparsely distributed even in the metropolis of a galaxy.
H. The transitory natural laws.
Natural laws are revealed by natural phenomena and there was none before the Big Bang. After the Cosmic Burst, natural phenomena and the natural laws they revealed appeared. Now there are biological phenomena and biological laws that were nonexistent before. The latter, however, and all natural laws will be empty as the natural phenomena that reveal them vanishes and our universe collects into black holes in the eyes of cosmological vortices back in dark matter.
I. Computational and Qualitative of the Universe and our universe
R*´ R*´ R* mathematically models the Universe (timeless and boundless); R* physical time and distance, the non-standard g-sequence of d* the nested fractal superstring and d* the tail end of its toroidal fluxes: a superstring and continuum. The decimals mathematically model the metric system and the integers the countably infinite, discrete, limited dark matter and finite visible matter of our universe. GUT qualitatively models our universe.
6. More information
Discussion of the following topics is found in GUHT and the references:
1. Guidance of migratory birds
2. Background radiation
3. Atlantic and Pacific wind cycles
4. Water eddy, typhoon and tornado
5 Solar eclipse, tidal cycle and earthquake
6. Tsunami
7. Brittle and malleable material
8. Debris in the Cosmos
9. Earthlight and ball of fire
10. Heat and fire
11. Mass suicide by whales?
12. Matter-anti-matter interaction
13. Further verification of quantum gravity