Sumer PalaeographyEpic of Gilgamesh - Résumé of the Poem
(Akkadian Cycle)Of all the Assyro-Babylonian heroes the most famous is certainly Gilgamesh whose figure and exploits have been immortalised in a vast poem, the masterpiece of Babylonian literature, and entitled, according to how it is interpreted, either as 'He who discovered the source' or 'He who saw all'. The chief text which we possess comes from the Library of Ashurbanipal of Nineveh and dates from the seventh century BCE. It comprises twelve cantos of about three hundred verses each. The poem, however, is much more ancient, for a Babylonian fragment of it has been preserved which goes back to the beginning of the second millennium.
The hero of the poem - Gilgamesh - does not seem to have been purely imaginary. It is generally agreed that he was a king of the land of Sumer who reigned in the third millennium over the city of Uruk or Erech in probable succession to the king Dumuzi. Among the chiefs of these small Sumerian towns Gilgamesh doubtless distinguished himself for his courage and the success of his enterprises. As happened in similar cases a legend grew up about him and he became the central figure in a series of marvellous adventures which form the material of the poem of which the following is a résumé: Over the ancient walled city of Erech, where Anu had his earthly dwelling, 'Eanna the holy', there once reigned a wise but despotic prince whose name was Gilgamesh. 'His two-thirds was a god, his other third a man'. He spread consternation among local families, taking daughters from their fathers, maidens from heroes, wives from their husbands. The inhabitants of Erech complained to the gods. The gods, too, were moved and spoke to Aruru the Great: 'Thou hast created Gilgamesh. Now create another man in his image so that they shall fight each other and leave Erech in peace'. Aruru took mud, cut it and from it fashioned in Anu's image the hero Enkidu - who was also called Eabani. His body was covered with hair; on his head his hair was like a woman's, 'growing like the harvest'. He grew up in the desert among the wild beasts.
With gazelles he ate the grass, With the cattle he quenched his thirst, With the flocks his heart rejoiced to drink. In order to defend his friends, the beasts, he filled in the trenches dug by hunters, removed the nets they had spread and, as his strength equalled an army of Anu, no one dared to venture into the desert. It was decided to seize him. But how? Gilgamesh suggested an expedient: Go, my hunter, and take with thee a harlot. While he accompanies his flock to the drinking trough, she - let her remove her robe. Let him take his pleasure of her. He will see her and approach her. Thus is was done. Posted near the drinking trough the hunter and the harlot, after waiting for two days, saw Enkidu and his familiar flock arrive. The girl exposed her bosom and drew off her robe. Enkidu was overcome with passion and lay with her. When he had his fill of pleasure he returned to his flock, but upon seeing him the gazelles fled. 'The desert cattle shunned him'. Deprived of his innocence Enkidu was no longer worthy to live in familiarity with animals. In vain he tried to rejoin them. His knees betrayed him, his body was as though paralysed. He returned and sat sadly at the harlot's feet and she completed his enslavement by flattering word. Thou art beautiful, Enkidu, thou art like a god. Why dost thou roam the desert with wild flocks? Come! I shall lead thee to Erech within the walls, Where Gilgamesh is perfect in strength And, like a wild ox, has established himself over the people. And without resistance Enkidu let himself be conducted to Erech. Meanwhile Gilgamesh, in his palace, was disturbed by a dream: in his sleep he seen a man of prodigious strength with whom he had vainly attempted to struggle. He went to find his mother Ninsun who 'knew all knowledge' and confided to her his uneasiness. My mother, I have seen a dream in the night: Whilst there were stars in the heavens, Someone swooped down upon me like an army of Anu; I bore him and he was stronger than I, His anger I repulsed violently, but I could not shake him off... I overlaid him like a woman. I laid him at thy feet; Thou madest him measure himself with me. Ninsun, who knew all knowledge, reassured her son. The dream signified that Enkidu, who surpassed Gilgamesh in strength, would become his friend. And indeed when Enkidu presented himself at the palace, after a fierce wrestling bout, Gilgamesh welcomed him with friendliness and the two sat down side by side like brothers. Enkidu became Gilgamesh's inseparable companion and led a royal existence. He was dressed in a magnificent robe, he slept in a well-made bed and sat in peace at Gilgamesh's left hand. The kings of the earth kissed his feet and the people of Erech acclaimed him with their voices. One night, however, Enkidu had a bad dream: a mysterious being with sombre visage and the claws of an eagle carried him above the clouds and cast him into the house of shadows where Nergal dwelt, 'the house from which he who enters does not come out'. When day broke Enkidu recounted his dream to Gilgamesh and described the vision he had brought back from the nether world. Gilgamesh filled a pot of jet with honey, filled a pot of lapis-lazuli with butter and offered them as gifts to Shamash and addressed him with a mother's tears. 'Why', she asked, 'hast thou given my child a heart which does not sleep? And now thou hast touched him and he is going away by far-off paths towards Khumbaba. He faces a combat which he understands not; he undertakes a campaign which he understands not'. In vain the inhabitants of Erech attempted to restrain Gilgamesh by pointing out the perils of the enterprise. Khumbaba was a terrifying monster, and it required a march of twenty thousand hours to reach his retreat. In vain Enkidu himself showed his distaste for the expedition. Gilgamesh stubbornly insisted on carrying out his plan. He closed his ears to the advice of his elders, overcame Enkidu's hesitations and the two friends set out. After a long journey to the wooded slopes of the Amanus, they arrived at the green mountain, mantled with its forest of cedar, which was the domain of Khumbaba. Enlil had placed Khumbaba there to keep the cedars intact. His voice was a tempest, his mouth was the mouth of the gods, his breath was a wind. 'Whoever cuts down his cedars is stricken with infirmity'. Enkidu again wished to dissuade Gilgamesh 'My friend', he said, 'let us not go into the forest. My hands are weak and my ribs are paralysed'. But Gilgamesh led him on. The forest, covered with majestic and sweet-smelling cedars, was the dwelling of the gods and the sanctuary of Irnini, probably a form of Ishtar. Before the two heroes stretched its shadows, filled with delights and well-traced paths. The two friends took a path and soon came to an enclosure which marked the beginning of Khumbaba's domain. Gilgamesh called aloud upon the monster and challenged him. But the savage guardian of the forest refused to reply. Before the fight began Gilgamesh took care to consult the omens. He made an offering to the dead, chanted the funeral dirge, dug a trench into which he threw seed-corn and, climbing to the summit of the mountain, invoked Shamash: 'O Lord', he said, 'send a dream for Enkidu'. And suddenly in the middle of the night Gilgamesh awoke and spoke to Enkidu who knelt, watching beside him. 'My friend', he said to Enkidu, 'didst thou not call me? Why have I awakened? Has not a god passed by? Why is my flesh overwhelmed? Dreaming I saw the heavens cry out and the earth roar. In the darkness lightning flashed, fire burst forth; death fell like rain. Then the fire was extinguished... 'Enkidu presumably interpreted the dream as an omen of victory, though the next part of the text is lost. He invoked the aid of the gods and went into battle. The gods let loose the elements against Khumbaba who confessed himself vanquished and was slain by Gilgamesh. After his triumph Gilgamesh purified himself of his battle-stains, rearranged his hair and put on clean raiment. He fastened his robe and resumed his crown. The goddess Ishtar was the hero and, struck by his beauty, spoke to him: Come, Gilgamesh, be my lover! Be my husband and I shall be thy wife! I shall harness thee a chariot of lapis-lazuli and gold. Come into our dwelling, in the perfume of the cedars. When thou comest in our dwelling They who sit on thrones will kiss thy feet, Kings will prostrate themselves before thee, Lords and Princes... But Gilgamesh roughly repelled the goddess. He well knew how inconstant she was and what wretched fate she reserved for her lovers when they had ceased to please her. Come, I will reveal thy harlotry! For Tammuz, lover of thy youth, Year after year thou hast mourned. The bird, the 'little gardener', the speckled one, Thou hast loved him: And struck him and broken his wing! Thou hast loved the lion, mighty in strenght: And thou hast dug him seven and seven pits. Thou hast loved the steed, proud in battle, And destined him for the halter, the goad and the whip. Thou hast loved the shepherd: To thee each day he sacrificed his kids; Thou hast struck him and changed him into a leopard... Me, too, wilt thou now love - and like them transform.
On hearing these harsh words Ishtar smouldered with rage. She rose to the skies, approached Anu, her father, and said: 'Gilgamesh has cursed me! Gilgamesh has recounted my shame... To chastise his impudence create a celestial bull to send against him!' Anu granted his daughter's request. He sent against Gilgamesh a furious bull who was about to overthrow the hero when Enkidu rushed to his assistance, seized the beast by its tail and tore it to pieces. Then, seeing Ishtar on the walls of Erech, weeping in the midst of her sacred courtesans, he skinned off the right flank of the celestial bull and flung it derisively onto the goddess's face, saying: 'And thou too, let me but catch thee - I shall do as much to thee'. Gilgamesh removed the bull's vast horns, which could hold much oil, and reserved them for the ritual of anointing required by the cult of Lugal-banda for whom he had an especial veneration. After which the two friends, having washed their hands in the Euphrates, returned to Erech amidst the acclamation of the people who cried: Gilgamesh is dazzling among men! Gilgamesh is mighty among men! Having accomplished their marvellous exploits our heroes rested. But the cruel Ishtar meditated her revenge. Enkidu was stricken with illness and for twelve days struggled against it. Thus was fulfilled the funeral dream which had disturbed him at the beginning of the poem. At dawn on the thirteenth day Enkidu expired in the arms of his friend. Gilgamesh bewailed him: Enkidu, my friend, my little brother, who chased the tiger of the desert; Together have we gone everywhere and climbed mountains: What sleep has seized thee now? Darkness has come over thee and thou hearest me not! He felt his heart and his heart no longer beat. Suddenly seized with panic before the corpse Gilgamesh rushed from his palace and fled through the countryside. Those whom he met said to him: Why is thy strength devoured? Why is thy face lowered? Thy heart is in a sorry state; thy features are cast down. And there is sorrow in thy bowels; Sadness and mourning burn thy visage. And Gilgamesh answered them:
Why should I not flee through the land? Enkidu, my friend, my little brother, who chased the panther of the desert, My friend who with me killed lions, My friend who faced with me all difficulties, His fate has overtaken him. Six days and six nights have I wept over him. Then was I afraid of death and I fled through the land. My friend whom I loved has become like unto mud. And I, must I too, lie down like him and never rise again? So it was the fear of death which made Gilgamesh flee. But where could he discover the secret of how to escape this inevitable fate? Finally he thought of going to consult Uta-Napishtim, that fortunate man who, having survived the deluge, had received from the gods the gift of immortality. To reach him the road was long and dangerous. To Gilgamesh that mattered not: he would face all perils. If I meet lions and am afraid, I shall raise my head and call upon Sin; To Ishtar, courtesan of the gods, my prayers shall rise. First he reached Mount Mashu. It was here that every evening the sun sought repose. The gates of the mountain were guarded by scorpion-men whose heads touched the terrace of the gods and whose breasts reached the netherworld. 'Their dazzling brilliance overthrew mountains'. Seeing them Gilgamesh felt his face grow dark with fear and horror. Nevertheless he recovered his courage and bowed before them. A scorpion-man, who had recognized in Gilgamesh the flesh of the gods, obligingly indicated the route, and the hero strode forward into the depths of the mountain. For eleven double-hours he marched through impenetrable darkness. Finally, at the twelfth double-hour, the light again shone, and Gilgamesh found himself in a wonderful garden which lay beside the sea. Before him rose the tree of the gods whose fruits, magnificent to behold, were borne on branches of lapis-lazuli. The ground was strewn with precious stones. This place of delights was the dwelling of the goddess Siduri Sabitu (that is, the inn-keeper) 'who lives at the edge of the sea'. At the sight of the hero, dressed in the skin of a wild animal, Siduri took fright and locked herself in her house. But Gilgamesh threatened to break the bolt and smash in the door. The goddess then consented to listen to him. When he had told her the object of his journey she first pointed out that it was useless. O Gilgamesh, why dost thou run in all direction? The life thou seekest thou shalt never find. When the gods created man They gave him Death. Life they kept in their own hands. Let Gilgamesh, then, be satisfied with earthly joys.
Fill thy belly, Night and day rejoice, Make every day a festival! Put on lavish raiment, Let thy head be washed! Wash thee with water, Consider the child who grasps thy hand, Let thy wife rejoice on thy bosom! Moreover, to what perils would he not expose himself if he persisted in his design:
O Gilgamesh! There has never been a way, And no one since the days of old has passed the sea. The way is hard and the road is rough, And deep are the waters of Death which close the entrance. Where, then, Gilgamesh, shalt thou pass over the sea? When thou reachest the waters of Death, what shalt thou do?
Being, however, unable to overcome the hero's stubbornness Siduri advised him to seek Urshanabi, Uta-Napishtim's boatman, who alone could guide him on this difficult voyage. Urshanabi bade Gilgamesh cut in the forest a hundred and twenty poles each sixty cubits long. After that he invited him on board his boat. They reached the waters of Death which surrounded the paradise of Uta-Napishtim and defended its approaches. Woe to him who touches these waters! But thanks to Urshanabi's foresight Gilgamesh avoided their deadly contact. He threw away each pole after having used in only once. With the one hundred and twentieth pole the crossing was accomplished.
Gilgamesh found Uta-Napishtim and explained his desire for immortality. But 'he who had found everlasting life' urged upon him death's inescapable necessity. 'Do we make a house to last for ever? Does the river rise for ever? No one knows the face of death. Mammitu who created fate decides, with the Anunnaki, the fates. They determine life and death and they never make known the days when death will come!' If, after the deluge, he himself had become immortal the privilege was due to the benevolence of a god. And to prove to Gilgamesh the force of destiny he proposed an experiment. Since sleep is the image of death let Gilgamesh not go to bed for six days and seven nights. Alas! Gilgamesh had scarcely sat down before he was asleep! Uta-Napishtim said with contempt to his wife: Behold the strong man who desired everlasting life! Sleep, like a hurricane, breaks over him. So Gilgamesh returned home and retained his mortal state. Before he departed, however, Uta-Napishtim at his wife's request revealed to Gilgamesh a wondrous secret: at the bottom of the ocean there was a prickly plant - 'like the bramble its thorn pricks the hand, but its name is "the-old-man-becomes-young" and he who eats of it regains his youth'. Gilgamesh at once attached heavy stones to his feet, plunged into the ocean, gathered the plant which pricked his hand and, removing the stones, rose again and regained Urshanabi's boat. His journey would not have been useless. But alas! during his return journey he bathed in a fountain of fresh water; when a snake, attracted by the odour of the plant, stole the magic branch. Then Gilgamesh sat down and wept. Doubly disappointed, Gilgamesh regained Erech with its enclosure. Still haunted by the fear of death he evoked the shade of Enkidu, to learn from him the 'law of the world'; but Enkidu could only describe to his friend the mournful condition of those who are everlastingly imprisoned in the sombre kingdom of Nergal. And it is upon this disheartening vision that the adventures of Gilgamesh close. Akkadian Cycle: [Prologue] [The Coming of Enkidu] [The Forest Journey] [Ishtar and Gilgamesh, and the Death of Enkidu] [The Search for Everlasting Life] [The Story of the Flood] [The Return] [The Death of Gilgamesh]
Sumerian Cycle: [Gilgamesh and the Land of Living] [Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven] [The Deluge] [Gilgamesh and Agga of Kish] [Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Nether World] [Death of Gilgamesh]
